Tier 3 source58 answers cite this
Harold McGee, "On Food and Cooking"
Harold McGee, "On Food and Cooking" is a tier 3 source on AskedWell — Named-practitioner reference. Expert authors with editorial-level credibility. It's cited in 58 cooking, fermentation, and baking answers. Click any answer below to read the cited claim in context.
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how long does… · cooking
How long does bone broth need to simmer?
Beef or pork bone broth simmers 12–24 hours. Chicken bone broth needs 6–12 hours. Pressure cooker reduces both to 2–4 hours. Vegetable stock: 1 hour.
Why we cite it here: Science of stock-making: collagen-to-gelatin conversion, mineral extraction
how long does… · cooking
How long does a hard-boiled egg take?
Hard-boiled eggs need 9–12 minutes total. The classic method: bring eggs to boil, then 9 min for soft-set yolk, 11 min for classic hard-boiled, 13 min for fully-firm yolk.
Why we cite it here: Protein denaturation curves explaining timing sensitivity
how long does… · cooking
How long does it take to caramelize onions?
Properly caramelized onions take 45–60 minutes over medium-low heat. The viral "10-minute caramelized onions" is a myth — real Maillard reactions need 45+ minutes minimum.
Why we cite it here: Maillard reaction chemistry — sugars and amino acids need 110-160°C surface temp + time
how long does… · cooking
How long does chuck roast take in a slow cooker?
Chuck roast slow-cooks 6–8 hours on LOW or 4–5 hours on HIGH. Target internal 195–205°F (90–96°C) for fall-apart tender. 3-lb roast = ~8 hours LOW standard.
Why we cite it here: Collagen-to-gelatin conversion temperature framework — peak conversion at 180-205°F
how long does… · cooking
How long does prime rib take to roast?
Prime rib roasts 15–20 min per pound at 325°F (163°C) for medium-rare (125°F internal). 6-lb roast = ~1.5–2 hours. Use reverse-sear (250°F low + 500°F sear) for best texture: ~2.5 hours total.
Why we cite it here: Carryover temperature science + meat fiber denaturation curves
how long does… · baking
How long does puff pastry need to chill?
Puff pastry chills 20–30 minutes between each fold (4–6 folds total), plus 1–2 hours final rest. Total: 4–6 hours active making + 2 hours minimum total chilling.
Why we cite it here: Lamination chemistry: butter plasticity windows 50-65°F
how long does… · cooking
How long does it take to poach an egg?
Poached eggs cook 3–4 minutes in barely simmering water (180–190°F / 82–88°C). 3 min = runny yolk + set whites · 4 min = soft jammy yolk · 5 min = firm yolk approaching hard-cooked.
Why we cite it here: Egg protein denaturation chemistry — white sets 144°F, yolk sets 158°F
how long does… · cooking
How long do scrambled eggs take to cook?
Scrambled eggs cook 1–3 minutes on high heat (American-style, firm) or 8–15 minutes on low heat (French-style, soft custard). The two styles target completely different textures.
Why we cite it here: Egg protein chemistry: salt-timing + temperature-doneness relationships
how long does… · baking
How long does it take to temper eggs into a custard?
Tempering eggs takes 2–3 minutes of slow whisking + drizzling. The technique gradually warms cold yolks to hot-liquid temperature without scrambling. Then cook another 8–12 min until thickened.
Why we cite it here: Egg yolk protein denaturation chemistry — temperature-doneness curves
how long does… · fermentation
How long does cheese take to age?
Cheese aging ranges from 1 week (fresh cheese like ricotta) to 4+ years (parmigiano-reggiano stravecchio). Soft-ripened: 2–8 weeks · Semi-hard: 2–12 months · Hard: 6 months–4 years.
Why we cite it here: Cheese aging chemistry: proteolysis + lipolysis + texture evolution
how long does… · fermentation
How long does cultured butter take to make?
Cultured butter takes 12–48 hours total: 12–24 hours culturing cream + 10–30 minutes churning + 30 min washing. The fermentation step is what distinguishes cultured butter from regular sweet butter.
Why we cite it here: Butter fat chemistry + culturing fermentation reactions
how long does… · cooking
How long should brisket rest after cooking?
Brisket should rest 1–4 hours after cooking (minimum 1 hour, ideally 2). Wrap in butcher paper or foil and hold in an insulated cooler. Resting is non-negotiable — collagen sets, juices redistribute.
Why we cite it here: Collagen-to-gelatin conversion chemistry and muscle-fiber relaxation science
what ratio of… · cooking
What is the right ratio of stock to water?
Concentrated stock to dilute for soup: 1:4 to 1:6 ratio. Standard home stock (already brewed): use straight or diluted 1:1. Industrial demi-glace: dilute 1:10 to 1:20. Bouillon cube: 1 cube per 1-2 cups water.
Why we cite it here: Stock chemistry + protein extraction science
how long does… · cooking
How long should meat marinate?
Meat marinade times vary by cut. Tender cuts (steak, chicken breast): 30 min – 4 hours. Tougher cuts (flank, skirt steak): 4–24 hours. Whole birds/large roasts: 12–48 hours. Avoid marinating past 48 hours — texture turns mushy.
Why we cite it here: Protein denaturation chemistry + acid effects on meat
what temperature for… · cooking
What temperature should oil be for deep frying?
Standard deep-fry: 350-375°F (175-190°C). French fries: 325°F blanch then 375°F finish. Chicken: 350°F (large pieces) to 375°F. Donuts: 350-360°F. Fish/tempura: 365-375°F. Aim for golden brown without smoke; oils smoke point ≥400°F required.
Why we cite it here: Scientific framework for oil chemistry and smoke points
what temperature for… · cooking
What temperature does water boil at?
Water boils at 212°F (100°C) at sea level (1 atm). At higher altitudes, boiling point drops: 5,000 ft = 203°F (95°C), 10,000 ft = 194°F (90°C). Simmer is 180-205°F (82-96°C) — bubbles but not rolling. Pure water + atmospheric pressure determine the exact point.
Why we cite it here: Scientific framework for water-based cooking and altitude effects
how long does… · cooking
How long does butter last in the fridge?
Salted butter: 1-3 months fridge unopened; 2-4 weeks opened. Unsalted butter: 3 weeks fridge unopened; 2-3 weeks opened. Frozen butter: 6-9 months quality. Butter at room temperature in covered crock: 1-2 weeks (salted only). Rancidity = discard.
Why we cite it here: Scientific framework for butter chemistry + rancidity
how to convert… · baking
How do I convert milliliters to cups?
US: 1 cup = 240 mL. Metric cup: 250 mL. Quick: 60 mL = 1/4 cup · 120 mL = 1/2 cup · 240 mL = 1 cup · 480 mL = 2 cups · 1 L = 4.2 cups. Use a scale for precision.
Why we cite it here: Scientific framework for cooking measurement conventions
how long does… · cooking
How long does pasta take to cook?
Dried pasta: 8-12 minutes for most shapes. Spaghetti/linguine: 8-10 min al dente, 10-12 min soft. Penne/rigatoni: 11-13 min. Fresh egg pasta: 2-4 minutes. Whole-wheat: 1-2 min longer than white. Always test 1-2 min before package time — al dente has slight bite at center.
Why we cite it here: Pasta starch chemistry + gluten development during cooking
what ratio of… · beverage
What is the ratio of water to coffee?
SCA Golden Ratio: 1:15 to 1:18 by weight (60g coffee per 1000mL water). Pour-over (V60/Chemex): 1:15-17. French press: 1:12-15 (stronger). Espresso: 1:2 (18g coffee → 36g espresso). Cold brew concentrate: 1:5. Always weigh — volume scoops vary 20%+.
Why we cite it here: Coffee extraction chemistry + temperature physics
what ratio of… · baking
What is the ratio of butter to flour in pastry?
Shortcrust: 1:2 (1 part butter to 2 parts flour). Pie crust: 1:1.5 to 1:2. Biscuits: 1:3 to 1:4. Roux: 1:1 (equal parts). All-butter croissant: 1:2 by weight. Adjust hydration with water/milk to reach correct consistency.
Why we cite it here: Pastry chemistry + butter-water-gluten interactions
how long does… · baking
How long does butter take to soften?
On counter at 68-72°F (20-22°C): 30-45 minutes for "cool room temp" (cool to touch, pliable, holds shape when pressed). Cubed butter softens 3× faster: 10-15 minutes. NEVER microwave — uneven melt creates pockets that ruin cookie texture.
Why we cite it here: Butter physics: crystalline structure at temperature breakpoints
how long does… · cooking
How long do dried beans need to soak?
Overnight soak (8-12 hours, cold water) is standard. Quick-soak: boil 2 minutes, cover, rest 1 hour. Or skip soaking — pressure cooking unsoaked beans works (35-50 minutes depending on type). Salt the soak water (1 Tbsp per 4 cups) for faster, more even cooking.
Why we cite it here: Bean skin pectin chemistry + sodium ion exchange
what substitute for… · cooking
What can I substitute for sour cream?
Best 1:1 subs: full-fat Greek yogurt (most common, identical tang). Plain whole-milk yogurt (slightly thinner). For baking: buttermilk (3/4 cup buttermilk per 1 cup sour cream). For thicker: cream cheese thinned with milk. Vegan: cashew sour cream (blend soaked cashews + lemon + salt).
Why we cite it here: Dairy chemistry: fat globules + protein networks in cultured creams
what substitute for… · baking
What can I substitute for sweetened condensed milk?
Best DIY: reduce 1 cup evaporated milk + 1 cup sugar at low heat ~15 min. Or: 1 cup whole milk + 1 cup sugar + 3 Tbsp butter simmered 30 min. Vegan: full-fat coconut milk + brown sugar reduced.
Why we cite it here: Maillard reaction + caramelization chemistry in SCM
what substitute for… · baking
What can I substitute for buttermilk?
Best DIY 1:1: 1 cup milk + 1 Tbsp lemon juice or white vinegar, rest 5-10 min until curdled. Other 1:1 subs: full-fat yogurt thinned with milk (3/4 + 1/4), kefir straight. Vegan: 1 cup soy milk + 1 Tbsp lemon juice.
Why we cite it here: Acid + bicarbonate reaction chemistry; pH targets for leavening
what substitute for… · baking
What can I substitute for evaporated milk?
Best DIY 1:1: simmer 2 1/4 cups whole milk down to 1 cup (25-30 min, low heat). Or use 1 cup half-and-half straight (richer). 3/4 cup heavy cream + 1/4 cup water also works. Vegan: full-fat coconut milk 1:1.
Why we cite it here: Milk reduction chemistry + Maillard reaction development
how long does… · baking
How long does yeast take to bloom?
Active dry yeast: 5-10 min in 105-115°F (40-46°C) water + pinch of sugar. Instant yeast: skip bloom (mix into dry ingredients). Fresh cake yeast: dissolves in 1-2 min. No foam after 10 min = dead — use fresh.
Why we cite it here: Yeast biology: cell wall hydration + metabolic activation
how long does… · cooking
How long should you marinate chicken?
Sweet spot: 30 min - 4 hours for acid-based marinades (lemon, vinegar, yogurt). Up to 8 hours for low-acid herb-oil. NEVER over 24h for acid marinades — meat turns mushy. Dry brine (salt only) safely lasts 24-48h with similar flavor.
Why we cite it here: Protein denaturation chemistry; enzyme action on meat proteins
what temperature for… · cooking
What temperature should water be for poaching eggs?
Water at 180-190°F (82-88°C) — barely simmering, NEVER boiling. Surface should show small bubbles rising occasionally but not a rolling boil. At rolling boil (212°F / 100°C), egg whites disperse into strings. At simmer, whites coagulate cleanly around yolk in 3-4 minutes.
Why we cite it here: Egg protein coagulation chemistry; temperature-protein interaction
what temperature for… · cooking
What temperature should the pan be to sear a steak?
Cast iron at 500-550°F (260-288°C) for proper Maillard reaction. Stainless steel: 450-500°F (232-260°C). Pan should be smoking lightly when steak hits surface. Steak surface needs 250°F+ contact temperature for crust to form — below this, meat steams instead of browning.
Why we cite it here: Maillard reaction chemistry; protein + sugar interaction at 250°F+
what temperature for… · cooking
What internal temperature for chicken?
USDA mandatory: 165°F (74°C) for all poultry, at the thickest thigh part (not breast). Dark meat is better above 175°F (79°C). Breast: pull at 160°F — carryover takes it to 165°F. NEVER below 165°F final — salmonella risk.
Why we cite it here: Poultry protein denaturation + collagen breakdown chemistry
what temperature for… · cooking
What internal temperature for beef?
Steak medium-rare (canonical): 130-135°F (54-57°C). Rare: 120-125°F. Medium: 140-145°F. Well-done: 160°F+. Ground beef minimum (USDA): 160°F (71°C). Brisket + pulled beef: 195-205°F (90-96°C). Always pull 5°F below target; rest 5-10 minutes for carryover.
Why we cite it here: Beef protein chemistry + collagen breakdown stages
what temperature for… · cooking
What temperature for soft-boiled eggs?
Rolling boil at 212°F (100°C). Times from boiling: 4-5 min runny yolk · 6-7 min set white runny yolk · 8 min jammy yolk · 9-10 min just-set. Start cold eggs from fridge; lower gently into boiling water.
Why we cite it here: Egg protein coagulation temperatures + chemistry
how long does… · cooking
How long should steak rest before cutting?
Thin (1/2 inch): 3-5 min. Standard (1 inch): 5-10 min. Thick (1.5+ inch): 10-15 min. Roasts (3-5 lb): 15-20 min. Whole tenderloin: 20-30 min. Tent loose foil — never sealed (steams crust). Rest = juice retention.
Why we cite it here: Muscle fiber + protein behavior during cooking + rest
how long does… · cooking
How long should chicken brine?
Whole chicken: 4-12h wet OR 12-48h dry brine. Bone-in parts: 2-4h wet, 6-24h dry. Boneless breast: 30min-2h wet, 2-12h dry. DRY brine (salt only) is canonical for crispy skin; wet brine adds moisture. NEVER over 24h wet — meat becomes spongy.
Why we cite it here: Salt + protein chemistry; why brining works
what substitute for… · baking
What can I substitute for baking powder?
For 1 tsp baking powder, use 1/4 tsp baking soda + 1/2 tsp cream of tartar + 1/4 tsp cornstarch. Or 1/4 tsp baking soda + 1/2 cup buttermilk (replace 1/2 cup liquid).
Why we cite it here: Chemistry of chemical leaveners (pp. 532-535 in 2004 edition)
what substitute for… · baking
What can I substitute for baking soda?
For 1 tsp baking soda, use 3 tsp (1 tbsp) baking powder — but you may need to reduce other acidic ingredients. Or 2 tsp potassium bicarbonate + 1/4 tsp salt (sodium-free option).
Why we cite it here: Chemistry of chemical leaveners and acid-base balance in baking
what substitute for… · baking
What can I substitute for brown sugar?
For 1 cup brown sugar, mix 1 cup white sugar + 1 tbsp molasses (light) or 2 tbsp molasses (dark). Or use 1 cup white sugar + 1 tbsp maple syrup as a fallback when molasses is unavailable.
Why we cite it here: Chemistry of sugar + molasses + Maillard browning interaction
how long does… · fermentation
How long does gochujang need to ferment?
Traditional gochujang ferments outdoors in clay jars (onggi) for 6 months minimum, up to 3 years for premium aged versions. Modern home recipes shortcut to 4-8 weeks. Sunlight + 60-75°F + occasional stirring optimizes flavor.
Why we cite it here: Maillard + enzymatic reactions in long-fermented pastes
how long does… · fermentation
How long does fish sauce need to ferment?
Traditional fish sauce ferments 12-18 months for premium "first press"; basic-grade ferments 6-9 months. Anchovies + 30% salt by weight + 80-95°F warm tropical climate = standard. Liquid is decanted; solids re-fermented for lower grades.
Why we cite it here: Autolysis chemistry in fermented fish products
what ratio of… · cooking
What ratio of salt, sugar, and curing salt for bacon?
For 5 lb pork belly: 2.5% salt by weight (57g), 1% sugar (23g), 0.25% pink curing salt #1 (5.7g, contains 6.25% nitrite). Cure 7 days refrigerated, flipping daily. Optionally add spices to taste.
Why we cite it here: Chemistry of curing salts, nitrite-myoglobin reaction
what ratio of… · cooking
What ratio of salt to sugar for gravlax cure?
Classic gravlax: 1:1 ratio salt:sugar by weight. For 1 lb (454g) salmon: 60g salt + 60g sugar + 1 bunch fresh dill + 1 tbsp crushed white peppercorns. Cure 36-48 hours refrigerated, weighted, flipping every 12 hours.
Why we cite it here: Salt-cured fish chemistry and preservation principles
what ratio of… · fermentation
What ratio of salt for olive brine?
For brined olives: 10% salt brine by weight. Per 1 L water = 100g salt. Submerge olives 4-6 weeks (cracked olives) to 6-9 months (whole olives). Light brine 5-7% for shorter-keep modern olives; traditional Mediterranean stays at 10%.
Why we cite it here: Oleuropein chemistry + olive cure science
what substitute for… · baking
What can I substitute for vanilla extract?
Best 1:1 substitutes: vanilla bean paste, vanilla powder, or maple syrup (reduce other liquid). For 1 tsp extract: use 1 tsp vanilla paste OR 1/2 vanilla bean scraped OR 1 tbsp maple syrup. Almond extract works at 1/2 quantity (stronger flavor).
Why we cite it here: Chemistry of vanillin + vanilla extract compounds
what substitute for… · baking
What can I substitute for corn syrup?
Best 1:1 substitutes: golden syrup, honey, maple syrup, agave nectar. For light corn syrup: golden syrup or simple sugar syrup (3 parts sugar + 1 part water, simmered until clear). For dark corn syrup: golden syrup + molasses (1:1 to 3:1).
Why we cite it here: Sugar chemistry and crystallization principles
what substitute for… · baking
What can I substitute for molasses?
Best 1:1 substitute: dark brown sugar dissolved in water (1 cup packed brown sugar + 1 tbsp water). Alternative: golden syrup or honey (1:1) for light recipes; dark corn syrup + brown sugar for cookies. Use blackstrap molasses sparingly — much stronger.
Why we cite it here: Sugar refining chemistry + molasses formation
what substitute for… · baking
What can I substitute for shortening?
For 1 cup shortening: 1 cup butter (best flavor), 1 cup coconut oil (works well in cookies), 7/8 cup vegetable oil (for liquid recipes), or 1 cup lard (rare but identical performance). Butter has lower fat content (~80% vs 100% in shortening) — reduce other liquid slightly.
Why we cite it here: Fat chemistry in baking + flakiness mechanisms
what temperature for… · cooking
What temperature for low-temperature roasting?
Low-temperature roasting: 200-275°F (95-135°C) for long roasts. Most common: 225-250°F for 4-12 hours (brisket, pork shoulder). Pre-warmed 200°F for very slow + tender (overnight). Always finish with a high-heat sear or broil for browning.
Why we cite it here: Collagen breakdown chemistry + low-temp cooking science
how long does… · baking
How long should cake batter rest before baking?
Most cake batters: bake immediately (no rest). Chemical leaveners (baking powder/soda) react in 5-10 minutes — resting causes flat cakes. Exceptions: chiffon (rest 5 min for fold-stability), gateau (overnight chill for fudgy), some sponge recipes (10-15 min rest to deflate slightly).
Why we cite it here: Chemistry of chemical leaveners and double-acting powders
how long does… · baking
How long should cookie dough chill before baking?
Minimum 30 minutes for most cookies; 24-72 hours for best texture (per ATK + Cook's Illustrated testing). Chilling solidifies butter (less spread), hydrates flour (chewier interior), develops flavor. Drop cookies: 1 hour minimum. Cut-out cookies: 2 hours. Bakery-style: 24+ hours.
Why we cite it here: Maillard precursor formation during cold chill
what ratio of… · cooking
What ratio of meat to binder for meatballs?
Classic meatball: 4-5 parts ground meat to 1 part binder (by weight). Per 500g meat: 100-125g binder (breadcrumbs + egg + milk + parmesan). Italian-American: 80% beef + 20% pork + binder = 4:1 ratio. Variations differ by tradition; tighter binder = denser meatball.
Why we cite it here: Meat chemistry + binder science
what is the difference between… · baking
What is the difference between brown sugar and white sugar?
Brown sugar = white sugar + molasses (3.5% light, 6.5% dark). Differences: brown adds moisture + caramel flavor + chewier texture + darker bake; white adds crispness + cleaner sweetness + paler bake. Use white for clean flavors, brown for caramel-rich + chewy results.
Why we cite it here: Sugar chemistry + Maillard reaction differences
what is the difference between… · baking
What is the difference between baking soda and baking powder?
Baking soda = pure alkali (sodium bicarbonate). Needs acidic ingredient (buttermilk, lemon, vinegar, brown sugar, cocoa) to activate. Baking powder = baking soda + acid + cornstarch (pre-mixed). Activates with any liquid. Baking soda is 3-4× stronger by volume.
Why we cite it here: Authoritative chemistry of chemical leaveners
what is the difference between… · cooking
What is the difference between tamari and soy sauce?
Tamari = Japanese soy sauce made from soybeans (no wheat). Soy sauce = Chinese-Japanese style made from soybeans + wheat. Tamari is gluten-free, thicker, less salty, more umami-rich. Soy sauce is sharper, lighter, slightly sweet. Substitute 1:1 in most recipes; tamari often preferred for GF + East Asian dishes.
Why we cite it here: Chemistry of fermented soy products
what is the difference between… · baking
What is the difference between butter and margarine?
Butter = made from cream (animal fat, dairy). Margarine = made from vegetable oils (plant fat, processed). Butter: richer flavor, better browning, dairy allergens. Margarine: lower saturated fat, longer shelf life, vegan options, less flavor. Use butter for flavor-critical bakes; margarine for vegan/dairy-free.
Why we cite it here: Detailed chemistry of butter + margarine differences
what is… · cooking
What is umami?
Umami is the fifth basic taste — the savory, meaty, deeply satisfying flavor from glutamate amino acid. Detected by tongue receptors (along with sweet, sour, salty, bitter). Sources: aged cheeses, fermented foods, mushrooms, tomatoes, seaweed, soy sauce, fish sauce, MSG, ripe meat. Discovered by Japanese chemist Kikunae Ikeda in 1908.
Why we cite it here: Authoritative published reference on umami + glutamate
what is… · cooking
What is pasteurization?
Pasteurization is a heat treatment that kills pathogenic bacteria, yeasts, and molds in food + beverages while preserving flavor + texture. Standard methods: HTST (high-temperature short-time, 161°F for 15 sec) or LTLT (low-temperature long-time, 145°F for 30 min). Invented by Louis Pasteur in 1864 for wine; now used for milk, juice, eggs, beer.
Why we cite it here: Detailed pasteurization chemistry + food safety implications
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